Branding Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Branding - Essay Example In fairly competitive product/service market, product branding is an essential marketing tool for building consumer trust and loyalty on a product (Aronczyk and Devon 75). The concept of branding would is a marketing principle that is used by companies both in the product and price competitive industry. However, depending on the nature of competition in the market place, the effectiveness of branding is determined by either price or commodity nature of competition. In a price-competitive market economy, product branding is rendered ineffective since it is cost-ineffective. This is because consumers are price elastic, therefore, they are more sensitive to price differential property that to building image and brand loyalty. This implies that in a price competitive market, unlike product competitive market, consumers’ purchasing parity and choices are highly influenced by their ability to buy and hence product insensitive (Aronczyk and Devon 56). Advertising or any product promotional methods aimed at winning consumer’s trust and building product image among the consumers is uneconomical in a price competitive market but effective in a com modity competitive

Odyssey by Homer Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Odyssey by Homer - Essay Example It is therefore the epic is regarded as one of the most alluring and splendid works the world has ever produced. The poet has elaborated that maintenance of dignity and valor was the most imperative phenomenon for Greeks, on which they could not make any compromise altogether. Similarly, the politeness and modesty during speech and actions was also highly significant object for the society, and use of eloquent, apposite and sophisticated words during social interaction was regarded as the sign of being cultured and modest. Moreover, the people of the city were also munificent and generous, and always treated the guests with open arms and happy heart. Consequently, dignity, politeness and hospitality served as the most dominant features of the ancient Greek civilization of Homeric era. The verses depict the valor, pride, ego, prestige and strength of the major characters including the protagonist King Odysseus of Ithaca and his son Telemachus. Similarly, the loyalty, fidelity and dedi cation of Penelope, and the love and affection of the Ithacan subjects for their King Odysseus are also the distinguishing aspects of the ancient Greek life. The play reveals the very fact that the honor, prestige and dignity were regarded as the most prominent aspects of social life among the ancient Greek people, and they did not make any compromise on these issues altogether. ... The issue of pride and shame also appears at the eve of the challenge made by Euryalus, the handsome and strong Phaeacian youth, to Odysseus after the latter’s attending the Phaeacian assembly. Euryalus asks Odysseus to participate in the athletic contest along with the other Athenian youth. (Book 8: lines 178-182) However, Odysseus refused to comply with the same. Consequently, Euryalus passes insulting comments on him by declaring him as a sailor trading back and forth  in a ship with many oars, as well as a captain in charge of merchant sailors (Book 8, lines 200-202) In response to these awkward words, Odysseus made a thought-provoking speech in which he laments over his present state of affairs that is not suitable for the participating in athletics. However, he throws discus so powerfully that no one can do the same. Consequently, Athena encourages him to participate in other competitions too, which he does and wins the same. Hence, he obtains the opportunity of provin g his worth in discus throwing and wrestling. Thus, cunning speeches made by the protagonist character made situation uncomfortable, and the King announces the end of the games for the day. Odysseus is determined to fight against rival generals, sea monsters, court intriguers and hypocrites in order to display his bravery on the one hand, and to sustain the status of a dignified ruler on the other. It is therefore he sets out to fight war against the Trojan army just for the sake of enjoying the status of the most gallant and respectable person of the city. At the beginning of the Trojan War, he appears to be the father of an infant of one month only, departing from him

Nestle Organizational Structure

Nestle Organizational Structure INTRODUCTION Nestle is a Swiss multinational nutritional and health-related consumer goods company headquartered in Vevey, Switzerland. It is the largest food company in the world. Nestles products include baby food, coffee, confectionery, bottled water, breakfast cereals, dairy products, ice cream, pet foods and snacks. 29 of Nestles brands have annual sales of over 1 billion CHF (about US$ 1.1 billion), including, Nescafe, Kit Kat, Nespresso, Smarties, Nesquik, Stouffers, Vittel, and Maggi. Nestle has around 450 factories in 86 countries, and employs around 328,000 people all around the world. It is one of the main stockholders of LOreal, the worlds largest cosmetics company. Nestle was formed in 1905 by the merger of the Anglo Swiss Milk Company, established in 1866 by brothers George Page and Charles Page. The company grew significantly during the First World War and again following the Second World War, increasing its offerings beyond its early condensed milk and infant formula products. The company has made a number of corporate acquisitions, including Crosse Blackwell in 1950, Findus in 1963, Libbys in 1971, Rowntree Mackintosh in 1988 and Gerber in 2007. In 2011, Nestle was listed Number one in the Fortune Global 500 as the worlds most profitable corporation. With a market capitalization of $ 200 billion, Nestle ranked Number 13 in the FT Global 2011. (Nestle2011) Henry Nestle (1814-1890) Nestle System and Organization Structure A companys organizational chart typically demonstrates relations between people within an organization. Such relations might include managers to sub-workers, directors to managing directors, chief executive officer to various departments, and so forth. When an organization chart grows too large it can be split into smaller charts for separate departments within the organization. The different types of organization charts include: Hierarchical Matrix Flat (also known as Horizontal) Nestle Company is a decentralized organization that is organized according to the matrix structure. Nestle as a decentralized organization permits to subordinate branches to enjoy a proportionately high-level of independence. Although it still makes major strategy decisions at the headquarter level, daily operations are left up to subordinate branches to derive and perform. The responsibility for operating decisions is push down to local units (Broeckx Hooijberg 2008). In organization structure, Complex system is a system that is comprises a large number of entities that display a high level of nonlinear interactivity. There are number of basic observations that have been made through the examination of complex systems, mainly using computer simulation and the mathematic of non-linearity. (Unden 2001) Complex systems are usually open systems. Nestle, over its long historical development from a small village operation to the worlds leading food Company, has illustrate an excellent capability to adjust to an ever-changing external environment, without losing its basic beliefs and core values, so important for long-term success. Over the years to come, this capability will continue to be challenge even more as Nestle is growing in size and complexity up to a dimension, which demands a continuous development of its organisation and of the way in which it run (Christopher Yannicrumar 2008). (D.Rigby 2009) Nestle Organization Chart In Organization chart, we can see that the management of Nestle is also divided into 3 types top-level management, middle level of management and low-level management. Top Level of Management: It contains of board of directors, chief executive or managing director. The top management is the final source of authority and it manages aims and policies for an initiative. It dedicates more time on planning and coordinating functions. The role of the top management can be summarized as follows: Top management broad policies of the enterprise and lays down the objectives. It issues necessary instructions for preparation of subdivision procedures, schedules, budgets, etc. It prepares strategic policies plans for the initiative. It appoints the executive for middle level for instance departmental managers. It coordinates controls the activities of all the departments. It is also responsible for maintaining a contact with the outside world. It provides direction and guidance. The top management is also responsible towards the stockholders for the performance of the initiative. Middle Level of Management The branch managers and departmental managers constitute middle level. They are responsible to the top management for the operative of their department. They devote more time to directional and organizational functions. Their role can be highlighted as: They execute the plans of the organization in accordance with the policies and directives of the top management. They make plans for the sub-units of the organization. They participate in training employment of lower level management. They understand and explain policies from top-level management to lower level. They are also responsible for inspiring lower level managers towards better performance. Lower Level of Management Lower level is also known as operative/supervisory level of management. It contains of supervisors, superintendent section, officers etc.. Their activities include Assigning of jobs and tasks to various workers. They instruct and guide workers for day-to-day activities. They are responsible for the quality as well as quantity of production. They are also entrusted with the responsibility of maintaining good relation in the organization. They communicate workers problems, suggestions, and recommendatory appeals etc to the higher level and higher-level goals and objectives to the workers. They help to solve the complaints of the workers. (Nestle 2012) Nestle System Methodology and Objectives Nestle objectives are to be known as a world leader in Nutrition, Wellness, Health, trusted by all its stakeholders and to be referenced for financial performance in its industry. The company believes that it is not just about size, it is also about behavior; and they recognized that trust is earned only over a long period of time by systemically delivering on their promises. These objective and behaviors are summarizing in the simple phrase: Good food, Good life, a phrase that sums up the company business aspiration. The Nestle road map is intended the create alignment for workers behind the unified set of strategic priorities that will hasten the achievement of company objectives. These objective demands from workers a mixture of long-term motivation needed to build for the future and short-term business actions, delivering the necessary level of performance. The Nestle model is securing the progress today and ensuring success in future: Achieving simplicity; Investment of growth; Scale benefits; Driving performance The Nestle road map includes three main parts: Competitive advantages Growth drivers Operational pillars (Hemingway 2002) All these may define with one clear and simple chart: http://www.nestle.lk/asset-library/PublishingImages/About%20us/roadmap_large.jpg (Nestle 2012) Nestle has its own company in many countries. The head office in Switzerland works very closely with them, and sets the overall strategy the overall strategy, which is managed through the strategic business units and management. Geographically, Nestle three zones (Europe; the Americas; Asia; Oceania; Africa and the Middle East) work closely with the local markets. Their primary role is that enablers, acting as the voice of the headquarters. All units and zones share Nestle vision so that everyone around the world understands the direction to take and how to get there with common tools, common values and strategic. This ensure that people in a the world know how to act, and that there is a very strong frameworks of clear references and value for fast and efficient decision-making. PROBLEMS AND CHALLENGES IDENTIFICATION Nestle produces hundreds of products, has a global network of suppliers, and multiple selling channel and distribution. Therefore, to respond and predict in this rapidly changing in market demand condition is very difficult. When predicting a market demand, Nestle will need information to discover shifts in demand early so they could adjust for trends and send the right messages to the suppliers, shippers, and distribution centers before they are deluge with unwanted or defective goods or shortages. (Manhattan Associates. 2010) However, every company has its weakest links, so is Nestle. The weakest links are matters they are unable to control (Labs. 2010). Firstly, the most usual problem is the sources of supply of raw materials. This is due to an unexpected and sudden increase in demand, which will cause extreme supply shortages for merchandises that will result in major price increases. For example, bad natural disaster and bad weather have always been an issue affecting incoming raw materials. Secondly, the mistakenness of orders received in record. No company can ever achieve the requirement of zero imperfections especially in foods and beverages industry. For example, when the purchasing department of Nestle ordered 15,000 of mixed yoghurt from its dealer, but what the retailer received was only 12,000 of them, or on another case they might receive lacking records. Another example is, when Nestle tells its dealer that they needed extra orders of a particular product to be shipped right away because of unpredicted increase in demand, but in fact, the supplier may already has orders from other customers. This usually happen during special occasion. (Mashabale2012) Hence, in order to solve these problems, it is critical for Nestle to engage with multiple dealers or suppliers in that specific region, so they could purchase inventories from multiple dealers, which will definitely reduction the risk of shortage due to incontrollable situation. Besides, Nestle should also base on their purchase and demand planning on last couple of years of sales to estimate current year of supply and demand. Other than that, mutual trust and strong relationship with all the dealers are needed in order to raise the flexibility of material supply management, as well as to improve the bargaining power of Nestle. However, if there is a extra, Nestle may need to plan a promotion to clear their inventories, otherwise Nestle will meeting a great loss such as waste of warehouses space, paying high material handling cost, or inventories that are not sold became defective and may need to be disposed which no profit will earn. Therefore, when there is a big event organized s uch as big Carnival. Nestle will set up a booth at the carnival to sell its products, which are close to the expiry date at lower price such as Maggi products, Nescafe, yoghurt drinks, Milo, Nestle ice creams and so on. People often buy the products in big quantity because of the lesser price than the market price. As a result, Nestle could clear their inventories rather fast and save some space in the warehouses which is a win-win situation. Thirdly, although Nestle has a logistics department but it does not deal with transportation logistics. Nestle subcontracted its supply chain transport to the third-party logistics as Nestle tries to cut their supply chain costs and to concentrate more on their in-plant operations. Although Nestle does not have, a transportation logistics department but they do have a delivery team to cooperate with the third-party logistics in routing protocol. Nestle is using a Dynamic Source Routing (DSR), which is a simple and efficient routing protocol designed specifically for use in multi-hop wireless ad hoc networks of mobile nodes. The protocol is composed of the two main mechanisms of Route Discovery and Route Maintenance, which work together to allow nodes to discover and maintain routes on-demand to arbitrary destinations in the ad hoc network. (Maltz. 2003). Therefore, the delivery team is there to help Nestle and the third party Logistic that DSR is working as per company direction as w ell as DSR performance. Then, it is the poor partnership relationship between consumer and dealership. Dealers need these capabilities because they in close partnership with manufacturers à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Nestle, are a connecting hub of services for the consumers, and other stakeholders. However, Nestle solved this problem by using the Dealer Management Systems (DMS) as well as their dealers. DMS is a software solution that provides tools for managing service, sales, parts and inventory management, integration, business management, and core architecture. DMS help manufacturers and dealers create integrated marketing movements to offer inventory to goal markets. This will integrate innovations into traditional in-store sales and service processes and offer technologies for non-traditional merchandising, service and sales strategies through alternative channels for consumer engagement in-vehicle, via Web, or by phone. (Microsoft Corporation. 2008) RECOMANDATIONS FOR PLOBLEMS Afterward the reviews stated above, those were not the only solutions that are available. Nestle could acquire the inventories from the other outlets from the other region Instead of just finding or having multiple suppliers. Because some regions have different demographics, for example, race. If there is a surplus, and unable to clear the inventories at a short time, Nestle could consider donation for short-run purpose, this could help to clear the old stocks, as well as to help Nestle could use both manual and automation system in managing service, sales, and others. This is because one cannot trust wholly to a machine, as it may not be documenting the steps in its own processor. Because some steps cannot be automated and may require operator intervention to stop the escapement processing steps, even though adapting advanced technologies could help saving cost as labor cost is decrease, but if there are still problems occur, it will affect the business such as loss of customers because of the mistake. Consequently, Nestle must update the system software regularly and full utilization of available technology as well as the manual operators, which will effectively increase the efficiency and dependability of the supply chain systems. (Tallin2011) Nestle 2011, Strategy inaction, Nestle, Viewed 30th March 2013, Broeckx,P Hooijberg,R 2008,Perspective for managers, Nestle On The Move,no 158,24th March 2013, RMIT Christopher, L Yannicrumar, H 2008, New Concepts and Trends in International RD Organization, New Concepts and Trends in International RD Organization, illustrated by the example of NestlÃÆ' ©, Hahn, A 2007, Formalization in organization, Article Gratuits, Viewed 24th March 2013, Studymode 2011, Nestle Organization Structure, Viewed 30th March 2013, http://www.studymode.com/essays/Nestle-s-Organizational-Structure-1303923.html> The official board2011, Nestle, Viewed 9 April 2013, Hemingway 2002, The Nestle sustainability review, Nestle S.A, Public Affair .8th April 2013, Neslte.uk Manhattan Associate2010, Planning and forecasting: Anticipate and Respond to Changes in Demand, viewed 9th April2013, Labs2010, Supply Chain Efficiency Starts at the Top, Food Engineering, Viewed 9th April2013, Mashabale2012, Nestle, Viewed 1th April 2013, Microsoft Corporation2008, Microsoft Offers the Dealer Management Solution, viewed 9th April2013, Maltz2003, The Dynamic Source Routing Protocol, Viewed 10th April2013, Tallin2011, Nestle worldwide, Tallinn university of technology , Viewed 10th April 2013,

A Study of a Very Old Man with Enormous Wings Essay -- essays research

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gabriel Garcia Marquez, a master of magical realism, twist our minds eye in the story A VERY OLD MAN WITH ENORMOUS WINGS. Our perspectives are disoriented as we are enchanted with beautiful prose and appaled by people’s actions. Through the use of percpective and magical realism Marquez conveys mob mentality and people’s reactions to something unusual. Through the use of magical realism, Marquez shows us the absurdidity of people’s actions. The large man with enormous wings converys people’s misunderstanding of the unknown. Although the large man is thought to be an angel, because of his grotesque looks and awkward nature the townspeople treat him poorly. They shame the creature in various ways. This shows people’s inability to look past something’s cover and into what it really is. Upon the entrance of the angel, the one expects some type of epiphany to occur. Early in the story, the people of town along with pilgrims from afar try to find miracles in the angel. The angels novelty soon wears off and the angel actually ends up a spectacle to the townspeople. They treat it like a circus freak throwing scraps of food to it and housing it in a chicken coup. Thoughts even cross their mind such as â€Å"clubbing him to death (Sic)†. (Marquez) Through magical realism he separates the angel from the rest of the world in a way which could not be shown without the angel being such an outlandish being. The use of the unique creature makes the absurd actions and mistreatment of the angel exaggerated. Because of the angel’s appearance the reader is put into the same position as the characters in the story. The angel’s wings are said to be â€Å"huge buzzard wings, dirty and halfplucked†¦forever tangled in mud†. Marquez puts the reader into the same position as the townspeople. We, as readers, question the same things the people of the town. Once again, the absurdidity of the character presented exaggerates the situation. A circus coming to town shows the reader the mentality of the mob. Upon hearing of a tarantula woman coming with the circus, the townspeople lose interest in the angel. The mob has gone elsewhere. The once ridiculed angel becomes nothing to them. The people acted as a whole instead of individuals when one decided to forget the angel, the whole forget the angel. They move on to the tarantula woman as the spectacle to now admire. The ... ...btitled a Tale for Children, stands as an adult piece. The confusing nature of the story definitely does not lend itself to being read by a young audience. Marquez is telling the reader that even as adults, we sometimes act like children. We gawk at the bizarre and push it away from us. We mistreat what we do not understand. Marquez calls us all children and reminds us of the lessons we learned at a young age and how we need to remember them. Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s story A Very Old Man With Enormous Wings makes the reader think about people’s reactions and natural tendencies by distorting our views through magical realism and awkward perspective. The wonder prose and outlandish characters are just a small part of the wonderful story told by the great author. Through the use of percpective and magical realism Marquez conveys mob mentality and people’s reactions to something unusual. http://www.questia.com/popularSearches/gabriel_garcia_marquez.jsp Anderson, Perry A Magical Realist and His reality. Natioin, 1/26/2004 Mcfarland, Ronald Community and interpretive communities in stories by Hawthorne, Kafka, And Garcia Marquez Studies in Short Fiction, Fall92, Vol. 29 Issue 4, p551

Parental Involvement And Its Relationship To Discipline In Elementary Schools Essay

There is a plethora of research on books, journal articles, and stand-alone reports on the subject of parental involvement and its relationship to discipline in schools. These writings include research reports, expert opinions, theory papers, program descriptions, and guidelines for how to address this issue. Many of these reports are informative and useful, and because parental involvement and its link to discipline have been greatly emphasized in the past few years, there is considerable current information. An important influence on the way parents raise their children are the experiences they have in their family of origin (Hops, Davis, Leve, & Sheeber, 2003). The way a person is raised influences the rest of their life. Socioeconomic status can have a very significant effect on a family and how parents behave with their children. This effect continues into the school environment and could be directly related to how students behave in schools (Hops et al. ). The extra stress that families from a lower Socio Economic Status (SES) household experience can cause parents to use more punitive parenting practices. Some students have shown that, along with the economic hardships families from low SES groups experience, minority ethnic groups also have to deal with the added stress of racism (Pinderhuges, Dodge, Bates, Pettit, & Zelli, 2000). These factors all have an influence on parental involvement and its relationship to discipline in schools. Discipline concerns in schools are not new. MacDonald (2002) stated that student behaviors that require discipline have always existed in schools. However, it is the seriousness and widespread nature of discipline concerns that is disturbing. School campuses, once islands of safety, are now faced with violence daily (MacDonald). School discipline problems are impacting every demographic segment of society. O’Donoghue (2005) stated that in the 1990s, discipline concerns were viewed widely as an inner city phenomenon, but since then, discipline concerns have been distributed across the entire spectrum of schools in the United States of America. At a time when our nation’s children need adult guidance the most, some parents retreat from involvement in their child’s schools. Johnson (1999) stated that our nation’s youths are making desperately poor choices oftentimes guided by equally confused peers. All children, youths, adolescents, and teenagers alike need the advocacy and support of parents. Parental involvement is vital to the behavior and achievement of students. Unfortunately, many parents are doing much less than they should be doing. According to the U. S. Department of Education (2005), American mothers, on the average, spend less than half an hour a day talking, explaining, or reading with their children, and fathers spend less than 15 minutes interacting with their children. As vital as parental involvement is to discipline in schools, many parents do much less than they should and many schools engage in practices which serve to limit the extent of parental involvement. Literature Review Several researchers have attempted to categorize parental involvement according to the nature or type of activity in which parents are involved. Epstein and Salinas (2004) suggested that parents may be involved as tutors, volunteers, advisory committee members, school board members, or room mothers or room fathers. They grouped these types into three basic groups: advocates, decision-making partners, and co-production partners. They defined advocacy as politically active parental involvement; decision-making refers to parental involvement as committee members; and co-production refers to parental involvement in those areas or activities that contribute to school efforts for developing and planning and instructing students toward improved behavior and achievement (Epstein & Salinas). Data from the 2005 Children’s Defense Fund indicated that every day in American, 13,076 students are suspended from school, 6,042 students are arrested, 3,356 high school students drop out of school, and 3,087 students are corporally punished. Additionally, more than 3 million acts of violence and theft were reported in American public schools (Walker, Colvin, & Ramsey, 2005). A factor in improving discipline in American schools is to empower school personnel to be proactive rather than reactive. This means that teachers must become skilled in behavior management strategies that would enable them to create school environments that motivate students to act according to school and classroom rules as well as foster positive interpersonal interactions with peers and authority figures (Lewis & Sugai, 1999). In contrast to zero tolerance policies that emphasize punishing instead of positive consequences, it is critical to stress positive incentives that will motivate all students to behave (Lewis & Sugai). When schools develop disciplinary action plans, parents should be included at every stage of the process to obtain their input and to give them a sense of shared responsibility. According to the National Parent Teacher Association (2004), the following three types of parental involvement are critical to a child’s education: (a) parents as first educators in the home; (b) parents as partners with the school; and (c) parents as advocates for children in society. The full involvement of parents is vital to the success of these efforts. Barton, Coley, and Wenglinsky (1998) identified four basic components of parental involvement: the basic obligation of parents, school to home communications which include monitoring students’ discipline, parental involvement at school, and parental involvement in learning activities at home. Children growing up in society today need parental involvement and adult attention more than ever before (Comer, 2006). Parents belong at the center of a child’s education. The single best way to improve students’ behavior is by strengthening parents’ role in it, by both reinforcing parents’ relationships with the school and by helping and encouraging parents in their critical job of teaching the young. Not all teachers are parents, but all parents are teachers (Comer). The most basic statement that can be made about parent and family involvement is that when it is effective, everyone benefits. Research has shown us conclusively that effective parental involvement in education benefits parents, teachers, and students, whether the involvement is at the pre-school, elementary, middle, or high school level (State Department of Iowa, 1999). Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to examine issues surrounding parental involvement in schools. The experiences of parents were examined with the goal of giving parents an opportunity to express themselves in parent surveys. The study brought new insights to the body of research concerning parental involvement and its relationship to discipline in schools. Research Questions 1. What is the relationship between the level of parental involvement and the number of student discipline referrals? 2. What is the relationship between socio economic status and the level of parental involvement? 3. What is the relationship between the level of parental involvement and student academic success? Limitations/Delimitations Limitations 1. This study was limited to two elementary schools in a Trenton, North Carolina school district. 2. One limitation would be the honesty of parents’ responses. 3. Another limitation would be the sample size of the respondents; therefore, the findings should be viewed with caution. Delimitations 1. Duplication of the study may or may not produce the same results. 2. The study analyzed one school year of discipline records for students. Definition of Terms Parental Involvement – Parents’ level of active involvement in their child’s education (Epstein & Salinas, 2004). Parenting Styles – What strategies parents use to as it relates to disciplining their children at home (Coolahan, McWayn, Fantuzzo, & Grim, 2002). Socioeconomic Status – A person’s social and economic status (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002). Student Academic Success – measured by students’ mathematics and reading scores obtained from the Georgia Criterion-Referenced Competency Tests (GCRCT). Student Discipline – Control or order exercised over students. The system of rules used to maintain this control (Barton, Coley, & Wenglinsky, 1998). Student Referrals – Discipline referrals students receive for disciplinary problems in school (Gosche, 2005). Importance of the Study It has become increasingly evident that parental involvement in education contributes to students’ success in school. Research also suggests that when parents are involved in their children’s learning at school and at home, discipline referrals decrease at school and academic progress increases (Comer, 2006). This study is important because it investigated the relationship between the level of parental involvement and student academic success. It also investigated the relationship between the level of parental involvement and the number of student discipline referrals and the relationship between socio economic status and the level of parental involvement. It is essential for this data to be examined because the results will assist school boards, statewide evaluators, and school personnel in restructuring the learning environment to address and include parental involvement and its relationship to discipline in schools. Chapter Two will provide a review of the literature findings on parental involvement and discipline. CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction Not all parents are involved in their children’s school although there is a dire need for parental involvement and guidance in schools (Kornbluth, 1997). All children, regardless of age, need the unwavering support of their parents to further guide their academic growth. According to the U. S. Department of Education (2005), â€Å"American mothers, on the average, spend less than half an hour a day talking, explaining, or reading with their children, and fathers spend less than 15 minutes daily interacting with their children† (p. 2). The U. S. Department of Education further stated that positive results such as increased student performance, better communication between parents and teachers, and better socialization skills occurred when parents play an active role in their children’s education. According to Barton, Coley, and Wenglinsky (1998), chaos in the schoolhouse requires disciplinary measures. An exemplary discipline program is truly vital to the success of schools, thus making good discipline an educational requirement. Research has shown that when schools have discipline problems, academic achievement is negatively affected. As a result, a distinct relationship exists between how students achieve academically and their behavior in school (Barton, et al. ). A dire need exists for parents to partner and communicate with school staff so that problems with discipline could be reduced. Johnson (1999) stated that poor choices are often made by children and adolescents in the United States, and these choices are oftentimes aided by their bemused peers. Research by Kornbluth (2006) has noted that many schools do not put forth enough effort to enlist parents’ support and involvement in schools. On the other hand, Waggoner and Griffith’s (2001) research revealed that students with involved parents performed at higher levels on standardized tests than students with uninvolved parents. In a similar vein, Kornbluth’s study found that students not only performed better in school but also improved in discipline when their parents were actively involved in their education. It has become increasingly evident that parental involvement in education is a major contributing factor to reduced disciplinary concerns and a need for disciplinary action in schools. An article by the San Diego County Office of Education (2000) entitled, What Does Research Tell us About the Influence of Parental Involvement on Student Achievement, includes research on the benefits of parents nurturing their children at home and the importance of parents setting academic goals and expectations for their children. It also stresses the importance of parents’ involvement in their children’s education as it relates to their academic success. According to Parlardy (2005), parental involvement produces a decline in classroom disruptions and the need for disciplinary action while improving school climate, teacher and student morale, and student achievement. Cotton’s (2001) study revealed the importance of effective schoolwide and classroom discipline strategies and lists various ways to improve discipline in schools such as staff commitment to achievement, parental involvement, high expectations for students and faculty, clearly defined rules, and good school climate. Additionally, Wright, Wright, and Heath (2004) provided research on how the No child Left Behind act affects parents, teachers, administrators, and students as it relates to discipline and parental involvement. Waggoner and Griffith’s (2001) research supported parental involvement since it strengthens teacher/parent/student relationships and reinforces teachers’ expectations in the home environment. Homework is another area where parental involvement is critical. When parents are aware of what the curriculum entails and what teachers expect, they are better equipped to help their children with homework so that increased learning could occur. Kornbluth (2006) provided data to support the importance of parental involvement in schools. The results of their study revealed that students with involved parents performed better on tests than students with uninvolved parents. Hand in hand with parental involvement is involving the community in the school. Epstein and Salinas (2004) noted the benefits of partnering with the community. These benefits included having businesses become partners in education and serving on school councils along with parents. The benefit that is derived from this is that the community is involved in the decision-making process of the school and; therefore, has a pulse for the school’s goals and missions. As a result, one of the goals will also be to decrease disciplinary infractions and improve student learning. What is Parental Involvement? There are numerous books, journal articles, and stand-alone reports on the subject of parents’ involvement in their children’s education. Parental involvement is a term that frequently has different meanings to people. Nevertheless, it is safe to say that parental involvement covers a multitude of interactions between parents, students, and the school (Swap, 1998). Swap further postulated that parental involvement may be as simple as a parent attending a Parent Teacher Association (PTA) meeting or a conference with the teacher or as complex as representing other parents in decision-making situations or other aspects of school governance. In general, parents may take an active role, passive role, or non-involvement role regarding their participation in the school their child attends. A review of literature indicates that there are several strategies and activities available to parents, teachers, and administrators to obtain optimum parental involvement at different levels of commitment. For example, parents may volunteer to read to a class, become a book buddy for a student, or work with their child on take-home learning materials (Gordon, 1998). The research overwhelmingly demonstrates that parental involvement is a component that is positively related to improving students’ discipline and achievement in schools. When defining parental involvement, it is very important to consider Brandt’s (1979) four basic assumptions about parental involvement. The first assumption is that the family’s capabilities for providing a learning environment that accentuates the positive elements of cognitive and emotional factors can be improved (parent impact model). The second assumption is that the child’s health, nutrition, social, and psychological development influences academic learning (comprehensive services model). The third assumption is that when schools are made more responsive to parents, this responsiveness will lead to better discipline and achievement by the child (school impact model). The fourth assumption for parental involvement is that everything relates to everything else (community impact model). Swap (1998) asserted that various models have different assumptions and goals that must be clear to all participants. Swap’s premise of parental involvement described four models and their goals: The protective model’s goal is to reduce conflict between parents and educators, primarily through the separation of parents’ and educators’ functions and to protect the school from interference by parents. The second model’s goal (school to home transmission) is to enlist parents in supporting the objectives of the school. The third model’s goal (curriculum enrichment) is to expand and extent the school’s curriculum by incorporating the contributions of families. Finally, the fourth model’s goal (partnership) is for parents and educators to work together to accomplish a common mission – success for all children. Barriers to Effective Parental Involvement According to Hampton, Mumford, and Bond (1998), many students come from home environments described as America’s worst problems such as drug abuse, neglect, alcoholism, and domestic violence. On the other hand, Kornbluth (1997) maintained that not all students are in trouble because their parents are irresponsible, lazy, or uninvolved. Many students come from good homes, and they have parents who are doing their best to care for them. Often parents face different circumstances that affect how well they believe they can make contributions to their children’s education. Issues such as language barriers, work schedules, transportation, and access to childcare, for example, affect the frequency and conditions under which parents believe they can realistically spend time in schools (Kornbluth). Seeley (1999) noted that another complicating factor facing parental involvement is the idea that some well-meaning school staff members feel that they have been delegated as the educators of children and the sole responsibility for education is in their hands. Seely proposed that this idea of delegation has been subconsciously signaled to the parents so that they do not need to be involved in their children’s educational experiences. In brief, Seeley’s study concluded that one must convince all involved in the child’s education that parental involvement is essential to the education process. This study further implied that once parents and teachers understand the importance of parental involvement, they will be willing to commit do doing all that is necessary to achieve the identified goals. Davies (1998a) revealed that the growing number and variety of students’ ethnic, economic, and social backgrounds make reaching out to families increasingly complex. Educators who think only in terms of traditional families are likely to have a particularly hard time dealing with today’s great variety of family types. Davies suggested that educators must face their own misperceptions about parents. However, a child born to parents who are mature, educated, employed, and married is statistically more likely to do well rather than a child who lacks that family support, even if the child is exposed to a host of government intervention programs. Parenting Styles and Ethnicity According to Coolahan, McWayn, Fantuzzo, and Grim (2002), parenting styles differ based on ethnicity and are also determined by parents’ characteristics. Parents from different cultures may have different characteristics and may, therefore, use different parenting styles when raising their children. For example, ethnic differences have been found in the acceptance of spanking. Thus, there may also be ethnic differences in parenting (Pinderhughes, Dodge, Bates, Pettit, & Zelli, 2000). Research has found the authoritarian parenting style to be more common among African-American families than European-American families (Clark & Gross, 2003). Families from the same SES group but from different ethnic groups have been found to have differing levels of stress. For example, African-American families with low SES report higher levels of stress than European-American families with the same SES. This could be due to the fact that African-American families are also vulnerable to additional race-related stressors (Pinderhughes et al. , 2000). The Asian-American culture differs from European and Mexican-American cultures. Studies have shown that the styles of parenting used among Asian-American families may differ significantly in some areas. For example, Liu (2003) found two main types of parenting styles among Asian-American families. They are care and overprotection. When parents use the care styles of parenting, they are affectionate, emotionally warm, empathic, and close to their children. However, many Asian-American families use a style of parenting that closely resembles an authoritarian style called overprotection in which parents strictly enforce rules and discourage independent behavior. The overprotection style of parenting is comprised of parental control, overprotection, intrusion, excessive contact, and prevention of independent behavior. Other studies have found that the families who use the care style of parenting are closer and more functional with each other (Kee, Sim, Tech, Tian, & Ng, 2003). They also found the families who use the overprotection style of parenting to be more dysfunctional on the average. Other studies on parenting styles and ethnicity have found African-American families from low SES groups to have a more punitive attitude towards their children because of the higher levels of stress they experience (Pinderhughes, et al. , 2000). This attitude would lead to a more authoritarian style of parenting. Authoritative parenting predicts good psychosocial outcomes and problem behaviors in all ethnic groups and is associated with increased academic performance (Steinberg, Darling, & Fletcher, 2005). Parenting Styles and Their Relationship to Discipline Parenting styles begin determining, to a significant degree, how a child will develop at a very early age. For example, with infants, sensitive, responsive maternal behavior is associated with healthy and secure mother-infant relationships (Isabella, Belsky, & von Eye, 1999). According to Schaefer (2000), parenting style is the single most important factor associated with conduct disorders. Behavioral instability and non-optimal parenting across four generations was examined by Gosche (2005), and it was reported that non-optimal parenting is reproduced in subsequent generations due to the development of unstable behavioral styles in children exposed to poor parenting. Children who are exposed to more hostility from their parents are more likely to display aggressive behavioral styles as adolescents and adults which, in part, cause their aggressive and hostile behavior toward their children (Gosche).

Floods and subsequent death Essay

Hurricane Katrina formed in the United States in the year 2005, causing floods and subsequent death many people. It is estimated that more than 1800 people lost their lives due to the hurricane. This data makes it the worst in the history of the United States since the year 1928. It is considered to have been the hurricane most costly and deadly in the history of the U. S and was considered a natural disaster. Among the affected places is St. Rita’s nursing home which has let to the trial of the owners Sal and Mabel Mangano. The nursing home was situated in New Orleans in St Bernard parish. It has been build 20 years before the hurricane struck. This home was situated in a depression in the ground. The approximate number of residents of the nursing home was 65 and out of these 35 of them died when the hurricane struck. This has led to the indictment of the owners the Manganos, after investigations were done on deaths at nursing homes and hospitals. Their trial was for negligent homicide where it was alleged that they willfully caused the deaths of 35 people by not evacuation them and also tying them to their beds. However I beg go differ with these allegations and they should not have been convicted for negligent homicide. Nursing Home Establishment Sal and Mabel Mangano were the owners so St. Rita’s nursing home having built it 20 years before the hurricane Katrina. The area where they built the nursing home had patches of terra firma. In marshlands this is a good area and the reason why they had considered it, was because in 1965 during the hurricane Betsy this is the only area that did not flood. In this consideration it means that with the establishment of the nursing home they had considered that incase there was a hurricane, there at St. Ritas it would not flood. This shows clearly that they would not have intentionally neglected their residents to suffer and drown in the floods and the subsequent death hence they should not have been convicted. For this consideration they had in mind that, just like in 1965 the hurricane was not going to affect them and for this reason they did not evacuate but instead they went up their one story building. A Show of Kindness During the time of imminent floods the Mangano’s has intended to safe other people by inviting them to St. Rita’s nursing home among these their staff and relatives as well as their won relatives. The reason they had done this was because they were kind enough and were ready to help other people. If they had a motive of willingly exposing their residents to flood and death they then could not have invited their resident. They had the best intention and they felt that they would not be affected by the floods and thus they did not neglect their residents or even wish for them to die. They had offered shelter to more than 25 people who had gladly accepted since they were exposed to the disaster of the hurricane. Safety Before the worst hurricane happened on 29th of august 2005, the mangano’s felt that everything was alright. They checked and inspected the area which showed that the ground were dry, the parking lot and the roof was also alright. However it is at this juncture that the hurricane struck. Sal mangano had herself gone outside with several other men to inspect the situation and ensure that everything was alright and that the people inside could not be in any danger whatsoever. Meaning they were concerned greatly about the safety of the people who were already inside at St. Rita’s nursing home, they could have done anything to ensure that these people were safe. The Hurricane Katrina Even when the hurricane struck the manago’s did not neglect heir resident in cat they went inside and tried to fortify the windows and the doors in desperation of trying to protect them. All the same a strong wind and a strong flow of water hit the nursing home’s walls and even penetrated inside, rising in the building. The mangano’s alongside their relatives some of them as well as their staff worked relentlessly during this time of the floods and also made frantic efforts to safe the people at the nursing home. This means all this time what they had intended was the good of the people at the nursing home and more than anything they used their judgment with the utmost good intentions of saving the people. Conclusion According to the law in the united sates of America the Louisiana requirement is that an evacuation plan should be in the nursing home but id does not state about being mandatory during an actual o evacuation. The law also recognizes a safe place and allows the nursing home to evacuate to such a place In this context the mangano’s did not willfully ignore these rules because they did everything that they could in fortifying their doors and windows in an effort to make their residents secure and to protect them from harm fro the Katrina hurricane and to protect them from drowning as well. St Rita’s nursing home was for the elderly people and others with special needs. One of the reason s why then mangano’s did not evacuate them is because they felt that by moving the people they would have been doing more harm than good, since most of the frail ones would have suffered or even died in transit. This again comes to show that the mangano’s made one judgment which was in consideration of their residents to protect them more than to harm them. The mangano’s did not at any one time leave or abandon their residents, they were there themselves and they had also invited their relatives and other people to offer them shelter, if they were willingly exposing them to danger they would not have invited their relatives and they also so would have rescued themselves leaving their residents to die. Therefore, the mangano’s used their judgment and safety measures. They felt that this area where the nursing home was situated probably could not be affected by the hurricane. They should not have been convicted of negligent homicide for the above reasons. References: Carrie Khan, Nursing home owners not guilty. 5th December, 2008. http//www. npr. org/templates/story/story. php? storyId=14261612 Dawn Fratangelo, what happened at St Rita’s Nursing Home? 3rd march, 2006. Http//www. msnbc. msn. com/id/11658446 Paul Rioux, St. Rita’s owners say no help was offered before Katrina hit, 15th September, 2005. http//seniorjournal. com/NEWS/Eldercare/5-09-15StRitaNoHelp. htm

How Censored is the Media

How Censored is the Media Free Online Research Papers Media democracy is a production and distribution model which promoted a mass media system that informs and empowers all members of society, and enhances democratic values. Robert W. McChesneys, John Nichols and those who created Censored 2007 are part of a social movement evident in states all over the country which attempts to make mainstream media more accountable to the public’s they serve and to create more democratic alternatives. Its proponents advocate monitoring and reforming the mass media, strengthening public service broadcasting, and developing and participating in alternative media and citizen journalism. Adam D. Thierer, a conservative man who believes the media is fine the way it is, opposes Nichols and McChhesney’s work with hard strong facts why nothing needs to be changed in the media. The current structure of our media provides the audience with what they want to see and hear so technically it’s not a bad thing although few adjustments could b e made to help improve our economy. One of the main themes of Nichols and McChesneys work is that deregulated media is a complete misnomer. The media is, instead, a governmentally sanctioned oligopoly, owned by a few highly profitable corporate entities with excessive hypercommertialism. These concerns jealously guard their privilege through legislative influence and through use of their control of news coverage, by which means they distort public understanding of media issues. Other problems that are addressed to the media conglomerates is that they practice â€Å"stenography†, one sided news coverage only taking information said or given to them where as journalists should be provided with the resources to cover all sides of a story as well as being able to voice his or hers opinion freely (without any conflict of interest). â€Å"The current caliber of journalism is decidedly unsatisfactory for a democratic society. Democratic should provide a ruthless accountant of the power-that-be and the-powers-that-wan t-to-be, both in government and policies and in the extremely powerful corporate sector.† Pg. 62 Our Media Not Theirs. This is a progressive quote stating that there’s no balance within our government and media that’s able to provide people in a democratic society a fair share of good quality journalism. Unfortunately theirs currently a conflict of interest with in the media, â€Å"conflict between church and state.† As stated in Our Media Not Theirs. This refers to the ability of journalists and creative workers to conduct their affairs without having output determined by what serves the immediate interests of advertisers, or owners for that matter. The media should provide fair and honest new that’s in interest to the vast majority in an economy. â€Å"News is a source of information and/ or entertainment involving current events and possibly affecting our communities and the world.† Generated from 8am section of English 101B. Nichols and McChesney’s work clearly shows how progressive they are and that they stand on the far left side on the democratic table. A man that opposes them and a right wing man (for keeping the media the way it is) a strong republican, Adam D. Thierer. â€Å"We have nothing of sort here in America; and so long as the marketplace remains open and free of government controls on entry and action, a â€Å"media monopoly† is impossible in this country.† Pg. 18 Adam D. Thierer, Media Myths. Thierer points out it doesn’t matter how large a media outlet is today, it’s really just one of hundreds of sources of news, information, and entertainment that we have to choose from. People have control over what they want to comprehend from the things they read, watch, hear and so forth. If the consumer chooses to watch a more titillating show, then the media will provide them with that. If the consumer chooses to watch or read more hard core news that involves with global warming, health environment issues and stuff on that matter then that’s what will be provided to them. The media only wants to give people what they want, not to decide what’s best for them and take away their ability and freedom of wan ts and needs. â€Å"The media industry is a business and that is not a bad thing. Unless we expect our media outlets to be entirely noncommercial and publically financed, we have to accept the fact that media companies must worry about their financial health and adopt business strategies that will keep them operational.† Pg. 83 Adam D Thierer, Media Myths. Thierer stands strong with his position towards the media and the only thing he believes the government should do is back off the media and don’t interfere at all. There are almost always two sides of a story; one which there’s no understanding for the other party’s reasoning thus is why â€Å"a middle man,† a third party’s opinion is needed. McChesney and Thierer both have strong compelling arguments why the media should change or just stay the way it is with less regulations, but at the same time there both extremists in their field. As a third party perspective I believe the media should change slightly but not to the point where McChesney and Nichols want. People have the power to control their own lives and the amount of resources given to society enables them to seek and get as much as they desire. That’s where I stand with Thierer, but the media shouldn’t be out to make maximum profit without making an effort to enrich the society with news that will keep people safe and aware of all things, and this is where McChesney captured me. It’s obvious the media is a business just like Starbucks, Borders and so forth, and as an owner of a business you want to keep it running as healthy and smoothly as possible, so if we were to put ourselves in the shoes of the owners of the media, more than likely yo u would want your business to stay as profitable as possible. Now you may say no, I’m a person with good morals and believe in inequality. Well now’s the time to ask yourself this, If someone upright and gave you ten million dollars that you didn’t have to work for, would you go and split it equally with everyone in your community to help them out stating that’s the fair thing to do? I can’t speak for anyone else but yea right, I believe most people would keep that money and maybe few would donate to charity but that’s about it. So being an owner of a major corporation working hard to get where you are today, why would you want to give any of that up and what would be your motive/ incentive to do so. Although there few problems in the media such as journalists practice stenography, the media’s for profit which causes a conflict between church and state we have to remember if we truly want change then not just a small portion of people can tune into stations like PBS and NPR, it will take a large number of audience to convince the media that this is what we want. Do to the stenography in the media today we don’t hear much of stories like the Kyoto Protocol Agreement. For those of you that are unsure what this is, it’s an agreement among all countries to lower their emissions level by x amount each year to help against global warming. The only two countries that have not ratified this treaty are the United Stated and Australia. President Bush and his economists felt that it was necessary to pull the United States out of the agreement do to the fact that we had more restrictions than other countries like China and India. The only reason why we had greater restr ictions than other countries is because we’re one of the leading committers of green house gases. Now stenography took its toll playing the role favoring Exxon Mobil, a major oil conglomerate. If they were to say anything outside Exxon’s favoring that may lead to a conflict of interest. This is where the media crosses the line between church and state. They choose to leave important details out, keeping a one sided story that suits their sponsors rather than their audience. The only opposition to this is that they need their sponsors to provide them with the money to cover those stories. There’s a chance that we might not even heard about it if it wasn’t for those who sponger the media, giving it the affordable income needed to provide such things. Solutions to a problem such as this might be generating more non-profit media’s like NPR and PBS. Something like this could help the media but at the same time what are some repo cautions in making this reformation? Higher taxes, cut funding from other government funded programs all for a possible way of informing the public with better media coverage. Someone might argue that the funding for a better cause and people in society can be more aware and at the same time there’s no conflict of interest within the media. The one thing I hold against a statement such as this is that no one has the right to say what’s better for an individual and despite the conflict of interest the media still provides the vast majority of people want. In conclusion, the media structure we have today is fine although there should be a few changes. The news corporations shouldn’t be out there to maximize their profit capability, they should look into the better interest of their audience but as I stated before it’s all on morality. There’s only very few out there in the world who look in the interest of others. As the old saying goes â€Å"every man has a price† and it’s sadly true. For those who seek better sources of media find it while the rest of those who do not are on a verge swiveling away down an endless stream of media terrorism. Research Papers on How Censored is the MediaRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenAnalysis Of A Cosmetics AdvertisementMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductTwilight of the UAWBook Review on The Autobiography of Malcolm XComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationQuebec and Canada

Essay on The Alchemist

Essay on The Alchemist Essay on The Alchemist Berenice Mejia Jehanne Brown English 70 Journal #1 Main Points: * Santiago is a Shepard who likes to his job because he enjoys traveling. * He meets a shopkeeper’s daughter which he can’t stop thinking of and is looking forward to see her again after waiting a whole year to deliver wool to his father again. * Santiago dreams a strange dream twice which he is curious about. * He decides to go see a Gypsy to try to figure out what his dream means. * After hearing his dream, the Gypsy tells him to go to the place where the dream takes him and she requests 10% of the treasure when he finds it. * He then meets a man, which ends up being a king, who tells him to follow the path that god has prepared for him and that was to go find the treasure and he as well requests one-tenth of his sheep because he helped him make his decision. * He meets an old man at a bar to which he offers to be his guide, which the old man agrees after he finds out he has enough money. The old man then runs off with all the money the boy had after he i s distracted looking at a sword. * He then walks in to a shop where he meets a crystal merchant that offers him a job. Summary: Santiago is a Shepard who likes to his job because he enjoys traveling. With one of the stops he made to deliver wool he meets a shopkeeper’s daughter which he has a conversation with and couldn’t stop thinking of since. The thought of her even made him doublethink if he had made the right decision of traveling since she made him consider wanting to stay in one place forever. Santiago then has a weird dream which a week later he dreamt of again. He decides to go see a Gypsy to try to figure out what his dream meant. After hearing his dream, the Gypsy tells him to go to the place where the dream takes him and she requests 10% of the treasure, the dream tells him he is going to find, when he finds it. He then meets a man, which ends up being a king, who tells him to follow the path that god has prepared for him and that was to go find the treasure. He also requests one-tenth of his sheep if he decides to go. It’s only fair since he had helped him make the decision. Santiago decides to take the challenge since he had nothing to lose. He then meets an old man at a bar to which he offers him to be his guide to which the old man agrees after he finds out he has money. The old man then runs off with all the money the boy had after he is distracted looking at a sword. Even though Santiago becomes a little discourage he decides he is going to continue to find the treasure. He then walks into a shop where he meets a crystal merchant that offers him a job. Personal Response: The reason I’m enjoying this story so far is because the situations Santiago goes through really do happen to people in the real world. When the old man he meets at the bar steels his money for example, shows how you can’t be humble and trust everybody. There’s thieves out there which all they look for is to steal from people regarding what the case might be. I also enjoyed the last section in part one where he is offered a job by the crystal merchant. It shows that as there are bad people out there, there is good that are willing to help out even if it’s a stranger. I relate to this because it feels like something my mom might do and it just reminds me so much of her. That is what makes it beautiful. Evidence: As I’ve mentioned in the previous text, I can relate to this story because in a lot of the situations it reminds me of my mom. â€Å"It was as if some mysterious energy bound his life to that of the sheep, with whom he had spent the past two years, leading them through the countryside in search of food and

American Psychological Association

The American Psychological Association is the largest scientific and professional organization representing psychology in the United States. APA is the worlds largest association of psychologists, with more than 134,000 researchers, educators, clinicians, consultants and students as its members. Our mission is to advance the creation, communication and application of psychological knowledge to benefit society and improve peoples lives. Our Work APA seeks to advance the creation, communication and application of psychological nowledge to benefit society and improve peoples lives. We do this by: Encouraging the development and application of psychology in the broadest manner. Promoting research in psychology, the improvement of research methods and conditions and the application of research findings. Improving the qualifications and usefulness of psychologists by establishing high standards of ethics, conduct, education and achievement. Increasing and disseminating psychological knowledge through meetings, professional contacts, reports, papers, discussions and publications. Strategic Plan Our strategic plan goals are to maximize the associations organizational effectiveness, expand psychologys role in advancing health and increase recognition of psychology as a science. Governance and Senior Staff Volunteer governance members play a key role in the direction and completion of APAs advocacy, publishing, member service and more. These groups include APAs: Council of Representatives, which has the sole authority to approve policy and appropriate the associations revenue. Board of Directors, elected by the membership, and which acts as the administrative agent of the Council of Representatives. APA president, elected annually by the membership to serve as the face of the association. Committees, boards and task forces, which focus on particular issues in the field. APAs daily operations are overseen by its senior staff at APA headquarters in Washington, D. C. Definition of Psychology Psychology is a diverse discipline, grounded in science, but with nearly boundless applications in everyday life. Some psychologists do basic research, developing theories and testing them through carefully honed research methods involving observation, experimentation and analysis. Other psychologists apply the disciplines scientific knowledge to help people, organizations and communities function better. As psychological research yields new information, whether its developing improved interventions to treat depression or studying how humans interact with machines, these findings become part of the disciplines body of knowledge and are applied in work with patients and clients, in schools, in corporate settings, within the Judicial system, even in professional sports. Psychology is a doctoral-level profession. Psychologists study both normal and abnormal functioning and treat patients with ental and emotional problems. They also study and encourage behaviors that build wellness and emotional resilience. Today, as the link between mind and body is well- recognized, more and more psychologists are teaming witn other health-care providers to provide whole-person health care for patients. APA History The American Psychological Association was founded in 1892 with 31 members and grew quickly after World War II.

Changes in Roles of African Women Triggered by Colonial Rule Essay

Changes in Roles of African Women Triggered by Colonial Rule - Essay Example The period of colonization initiated discomfort and trust issues between the British and Agikuyu(Finke, par 2). Even though the regions of Kenya were unknown to the British, they immediately chose regions of Kenya that had contents of resources that were of great value to the economy. By this, the British ensured that there would be less cost in running administrative affairs of a colony. The Agikuyutribe was spread in central Kenya, and the area was densely fertile. The new colonists took benefit of the fertile land by farming on a large basis. They farmed extensively because there were scarce resources (Finke, par 7). Due to this act of the colonists, the Agikuyu had to leave some of their lands. The domestic and other roles of women such as cooking, bearing children, mat weaving, transportation of goods and going to the marketplace had changed due to the effect of the colonists. The locals had lost their lands due to compulsion from the colonists. These events changed the perspect ive of the women in several ways (Turner, par. 16).Introduction of Christianity:The first and foremost that the colonists brought about in women were change in beliefs. The locals had believed in traditional beliefs but as per changer, they converted to Christianity. This change of faith was spread through the colonies (Afrikan Eye, par. 8). Another change in the Kikuyu women was a change of roles. The women previously were labors but after the colonial rule they lost control of their products and were paid for their work.

The Just Culture Model on Patient Safety Research Paper

The Just Culture Model on Patient Safety - Research Paper Example This is called the punitive approach model. It shuts off the necessary information required to identify the fault in the system and create safer systems. In such a system people do not learn from their mistakes. Discussion of need/purpose for A Just Culture Model for Patient Safety To improve the quality of overall health care system, there is a need to improve on the culture of safety within the health care. This is an essential component when it comes to reducing errors. A just culture can thus be said to be one that is supportive of shared accountability. It holds the organization responsible for systems that it has chosen to design and for how they choose to respond to the behavior of staff in a just and fair manner (Manasse et al, 2005). For their part, the staff are the ones who are accountable for the quality of the choices that they make and for the reporting of the errors they make and the vulnerabilities of the system. This paper aims at discussing the concept of the just m odel and its application in the health system cultures (Manasse et al, 2005). ... These components include, Empirical Outcomes, Transformational Leadership, Exemplary Professional Practice Empowerment, Innovations and Improvements, New Knowledge and Structural Just Culture (Manasse et al, 2005). â€Å"Just Culture† is not discussed in this context; however, it is in tandem with the case model. In reference to transformational leadership, it fronts for advocacy as an attribute of patients as well as leaders in nursing. In terms of Professional Engagement, imminent evidence in this case is that which would promote organizational leadership as part of nursing (Technology, 2012). Objective(s) The major focus of just culture is to increase the safety of patients; this is done through effective reporting, modification of the system, accountability and remediation. The objectives of the just culture are to increase the number of medical personnel, who report information regarding medical malpractice, increase remediation that is sponsored by the employer to incorp orate the culture in the review of complaints regarding malpractice, create a patient safety database for the whole state, assist in the development of the national safety database and increase use of practice intervention and improvement program, which is an alternative to the discipline program (Reiling, 2007). The main objective of the just culture is to establish a mindset that is organization-wide which will positively influence the workplace environment and the work outcome in many ways. This concept promotes culture where mistakes and errors in the workplace do not result in automatic punishment but a process from which the source of the error can be established. The objective of this culture is promoting an

Ethical Systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ethical Systems - Essay Example In the movie Sophie’s Choice, Sophie has to make a painful decision wherein she has to choose one of her two children to be sent to the gas chambers in order to save the other. The other option is to let go both the children with the guard to a certain death. Ethical formalism as brought out by Kant (Jensen, 1934), states that ‘Act only on that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.’ In other words, an action irrespective of other circumstances and environment, is either right or wrong and can be applied universally at all points of time. Going by ethical formalism, in choosing for one of her children over the other, it is felt that Sophie has exercised her feelings and emotions rather than the universal law. The right choice for Sophie would have been to fight for the lives of both children even if it finally lead to the death of both the children. By deciding to send the girl away, she has wrecked havoc in the mi nds of both her children and herself. That she commits suicide at the end of it brings out this emotional struggle that she goes through. However, viewing Sophie’s Choice from an utilitarian perspective (Harpham, 1999), choosing rather than not choosing was the right thing to do. By choosing, irrespective of which child, she has potentially saved the life of at least one child. If she refused to choose and opted to struggle to keep both her children with her, the guard would have taken both of them away, presumably to the gas chambers. Therefore, from the utilitarian point of view, the lesser harm was in choosing one child over the other and Sophie did the right thing by doing so. The bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki resulted in the deaths of more than 100,000 civilians and an even greater number of casualties, cannot be easily justified regardless of the attack’s outcome (Alperovitch, 1995). As a result, controversy surrounds the use of atomic bombs against the Japanese cities of

Major case study Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 2

Major case study - Research Paper Example Wildlife tourism can involve tours, experiences accessible in association with the accommodation of tourists, attractions at fixed sites, or it can come about as unguided meeting by independent travelers (Spenceley, 2012, pp. 85-88). Wildlife tourism has several stakeholders. The first stakeholders in this sector are the visitors. They have an expectation of accessing experiences that are of affordable high quality. These experiences include interesting activities of wildlife watching and guided excursions. Some tourists would like to have opportunities to familiarize themselves with the local culture and to have authentic interaction with local communities (Benson, 2001, p. 132). Another set of stakeholders is the tourism industry which includes private with public sector operators, the travel trade as well as industry associations. This ensures that there is development in the wildlife sector. They also ensure the individual operators get maximum short term profits. The third stakeholder is the host and the indigenous community. The indigenous community improves minimal negative social effect of this sector. While capitalizing on profits from the local area, they ensure that there is no disruption on the local wildlife (Lovelock, 2007, pp. 152-156). Another role they play is the protection of their environmental and livelihood assets, and minimization of disturbance to their communities and culture. It has the potential to add tourism-related benefits, to step up local services and employment opportunities, to improve the infrastructure with local business opportunities, and so stimulate revenue generation (Sosinski, 2011, p. 88). Wildlife managers in public plus private sectors are other stakeholders whose sole duty is the conservation, NGOs protection of wildlife habitats, biodiversity, generation of revenues and greater awareness via tourism to sustain conservation as

Critical analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Critical analysis - Essay Example He is put in an asylum. The place- Villete, an asylum in the city of Ljubljana. And the author- an expert storyteller, Paulo Coelho. Though, the plot of the story may sound gloomy but the story keeps the reader engaged as it unwinds. Because, you can relate to atleast one of the characters, you are eager to find out what happens next. You want to know the path taken up by the characters. Perhaps, you could follow the same. And the path that you should follow in life is revealed by Paulo Coelho in the most amazing way. You will find it difficult, if not difficult, impossible to disagree with him. The battle of every character is painted by Paulo Coelho with great detail. On one fine day (11 November 1997), Veronika simply decides to die. She swallows sleeping pills and peacefully waits for her death. She could have used some other method of committing suicide but the book explains why she uses sleeping pills- â€Å"Obviously she could have thrown herself off one of the few tall buildings in Ljubljana, but what about the further suffering caused to her parents by a fall from such a height?† Veronika fails to realize that her death will, anyway, bring misery to her parents. Veronika is saved and admitted to an asylum. In the asylum, she is told by Dr.Igor that her suicide attempt has succeeded but she will live for another five days before she dies. Veronika had planned to die quickly. But waiting for your death is different. And so, begins the five day ordeal for Veronika. Many of us commit suicide and die a cowardly death. This happens in a matter of a few minutes. How quickly the scenario changes when you have to wait for your death! You know that every minute is taking you towards death. And so you want to make the most of it. That is what happens to Veronika. At the asylum, Veronika meets other ‘mad’ people.

Ethical Systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ethical Systems - Essay Example In the movie Sophie’s Choice, Sophie has to make a painful decision wherein she has to choose one of her two children to be sent to the gas chambers in order to save the other. The other option is to let go both the children with the guard to a certain death. Ethical formalism as brought out by Kant (Jensen, 1934), states that ‘Act only on that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.’ In other words, an action irrespective of other circumstances and environment, is either right or wrong and can be applied universally at all points of time. Going by ethical formalism, in choosing for one of her children over the other, it is felt that Sophie has exercised her feelings and emotions rather than the universal law. The right choice for Sophie would have been to fight for the lives of both children even if it finally lead to the death of both the children. By deciding to send the girl away, she has wrecked havoc in the mi nds of both her children and herself. That she commits suicide at the end of it brings out this emotional struggle that she goes through. However, viewing Sophie’s Choice from an utilitarian perspective (Harpham, 1999), choosing rather than not choosing was the right thing to do. By choosing, irrespective of which child, she has potentially saved the life of at least one child. If she refused to choose and opted to struggle to keep both her children with her, the guard would have taken both of them away, presumably to the gas chambers. Therefore, from the utilitarian point of view, the lesser harm was in choosing one child over the other and Sophie did the right thing by doing so. The bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki resulted in the deaths of more than 100,000 civilians and an even greater number of casualties, cannot be easily justified regardless of the attack’s outcome (Alperovitch, 1995). As a result, controversy surrounds the use of atomic bombs against the Japanese cities of

Critical analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Critical analysis - Essay Example He is put in an asylum. The place- Villete, an asylum in the city of Ljubljana. And the author- an expert storyteller, Paulo Coelho. Though, the plot of the story may sound gloomy but the story keeps the reader engaged as it unwinds. Because, you can relate to atleast one of the characters, you are eager to find out what happens next. You want to know the path taken up by the characters. Perhaps, you could follow the same. And the path that you should follow in life is revealed by Paulo Coelho in the most amazing way. You will find it difficult, if not difficult, impossible to disagree with him. The battle of every character is painted by Paulo Coelho with great detail. On one fine day (11 November 1997), Veronika simply decides to die. She swallows sleeping pills and peacefully waits for her death. She could have used some other method of committing suicide but the book explains why she uses sleeping pills- â€Å"Obviously she could have thrown herself off one of the few tall buildings in Ljubljana, but what about the further suffering caused to her parents by a fall from such a height?† Veronika fails to realize that her death will, anyway, bring misery to her parents. Veronika is saved and admitted to an asylum. In the asylum, she is told by Dr.Igor that her suicide attempt has succeeded but she will live for another five days before she dies. Veronika had planned to die quickly. But waiting for your death is different. And so, begins the five day ordeal for Veronika. Many of us commit suicide and die a cowardly death. This happens in a matter of a few minutes. How quickly the scenario changes when you have to wait for your death! You know that every minute is taking you towards death. And so you want to make the most of it. That is what happens to Veronika. At the asylum, Veronika meets other ‘mad’ people.

Children and the hous Essay Example for Free

Children and the hous Essay Carver has been called a dirty realist. In what way do you think this can be applied to Neighbors and Theyre not your husband?  I dont think Carvers work can really be stereotyped; it is certainly different from other fiction by other American writers, so I dont think it can ever really be given a heading like dirty realism.  Even though the word dirty conjures pictures of filth, squalor and generally anything sexually different that people tend to shun, but in fact it almost has a double meaning- it doesnt have to mean sordid- its almost a term for describing anything sexually explicit which might otherwise be thought unethical or immoral. Neighbors is a story which basically is an insight into someone elses life- something that you would never normally know about that could be translated as interfering or an incredible lack of respect for other people and their belongings.  Theyre not your husband is a portrayal of male behavior and how controlling it can sometimes be.  Neighbors is a revealing insight into the life of a couple going through a particularly difficult stage in their relationship. The idea of such a trivial thing like feeding their friends cat is a particular trait of Carvers- to use something incredibly mundane to blossom something amazing from something pretty boring and routine. The way Bill and Arlene break all the unwritten laws of society and therefore bring a new flame to their relationship is odd in itself, but when you think about it, it is an obvious way- to try on the lives of people who are happy and confident in their relationship, and copy it into yours. The non conformist way they behave is yet another style of Carver; to show us the way people behave when they know other people cant see into their world or the way they are acting. I dont think that this particular story is particularly dirty, even if it is slightly sexual- it is not particularly crude or off putting. It is quite subtle- for example, the way that they always use the excuse of playing with Kitty when they spend hours in the Stones flat, is reminiscent of felines, which can be portrayed as erotic or sexual, and it is such a pathetic excuse that its obvious its not true- but neither of them ever questions it, they seem to have a hidden bond which lets them understand each other perfectly, and I think this is why they dont need to discuss anything when they go into the flat together. Although the Millers make the fatal mistake of leaving the key inside the house at the end of the story, it is too late, the image of perfect, routine middle- class life is broken. We realise that when we saw these people as a normal couple, mundane with no ups and downs in their lives, that we had only just scratched the surface. These people can behave just as badly as anyone else an although we do not see it, they are just as unlikely to conform to some perfect boring lifestyle than any of us. Theyre not your husband is a frank description of how male behavior can lead to extremes when men are put under great pressure. This can often happen in relationships when the female is more successful than the male, yet is unlikely to happen in circumstances where the man is the breadwinner and a wife or partner is left at home to look after children and the house.  This statement is proved when Earls failure to get himself a job leads to his controlling behavior over his wife in a want of something to live for, a purpose in life. Earl enjoys having some influence over her life and the way he can make decisions for her- after all, he doesnt really have any to make for himself. It gives him something to think about- ways to get her to lose more weight quickly, to make her an object of desire that he can be proud to be seen with. Earl seems to have no opinions or morals of his own- he relies on the opinions and gossip of other people to tell him whether his wife is attractive or not. He doesnt seem to be able to tell that she has lost too mush weight- it is like he has lost slight control of his mind, similar to the way anorexics do, they believe they are still fat even when they are skeletal. Earl would like her to continue losing weight until he hears someone say that she looks good- then he would be satisfied. The language used in this story is much more crude and chauvinist than that used in Neighbors. When the two business men discuss Doreen, saying Some men like their quim fat, this is deliberately coarse and blunt to represent just how lightly it was said, and how shallow Earl must be to take it seriously instead of standing up for his wife and forgetting about it. Instead he walks out of the cafe, pretending not to know her to save himself embarrassment. The language they use is quite dirty, but this is not Carvers own views- it is him trying to show how insincere and shallow people can be, and the seedy way they can behave. How 0men can judge a woman simply by her looks and completely ignore character. This is extremely realistic in the sense of how people are embarrassed to admit they are with somebody because they think theyre special, desperate for other people not to think worse of them because they like someone not considered to be up to the standards of others. It shows the appalling level that things can get to in a real- life situation without any of the family noticing much. IT takes outsiders to make a difference, good or bad. In both stories Carver uses dirty realism to give the audience an insight into the lives of real people- things that could actually happen and dont revolve around some huge unrealistic drama like a lot of fiction does. However it is a lot more obvious in Theyre not your husband than it is in Neighbors, simply because the language is that much more raw and unrefined. It is subtler in Neighbors, yet it is still there, and if anything, I find the subtlety more effective than the obvious, harsh language in Theyre not your husband. In both stories the language is simple and unpolished, leaving the mind of the reader open to discover the seedy and immoral world he has based his characters in. It opens your eyes to see the world around us in the same way, which is slightly daunting and depressing, but probably a good thing in the long run as it lets us look at other people and realise how pointless their lives are.  I think Carver has been classed as a dirty realist simply for the reasons that he uses sex as to act as a part in the life of human beings which can be changed by something which doesnt have to be very dramatic, making it realistic.

Usefulness Of Maxima And Minima Of Functions Engineering Essay

Usefulness Of Maxima And Minima Of Functions Engineering Essay The mathematical concept of a function expresses the intuitive idea that one quantity(input) completely determines another quantity (output). A function assigns a unique value or output to each input of a specified type. The argument and the value may be real numbers, but they can also be elements from any given sets: the domain and the co-domain of the function. Whenever a relationship exists between two variables (or quantities) such that for every value of the first, there is only one corresponding value of the second, then we say:The second variable is a function of the first variable. The first variable is the independent variable (usually x), and the second variable is the dependent variable (usually y). The independent variable and the dependent variable are real numbers. The term function is just a type of operator which transforms the given input to output according to the given conditions. This operator relates two or more quantities to each other, the quantities are known as variables. Out of total variables only one is independent and all other are dependent on that variable. One precise definition of a function is that it consists of an ordered triple of sets, which may be written as (X, Y, F). X is the domain of the function, Y is the co-domain, and F is a set of ordered pairs. In each of these ordered pairs (a, b), the first element a is from the domain, the second element b is from the co-domain, and every element in the domain is the first element in one and only one ordered pair. The set of all b is known as the image of the function. Some authors use the term range to mean the image, others to mean the co-domain. The notation Æ’:Xà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Y indicates that Æ’ is a function with domain X and co-domain Y. (Domain implies input whereas range or co-domain implies output.) In most practical situations, the domain and co-domain are understood from context, and only the relationship between the input and output is given. Thus is usually written as Here the two variables are x and y out of which x is independent and y is dependent on x. From the other side if we consider y as independent variable then x is dependent on y. Every function can be plotted on graph or more precisely Argand Plain. The graph of function may be a straight line, a continuous curve, a circle, an ellipse or even a point also. HISTORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA: Since origin of life, all people knew, talked, applied the concept of maxima and minima in their daily lives without even knowing about the concept of maxima and minima. In the earlier phase of time the kings used to estimate the maximum and minimum army of the opposite side, doctors used to record minimum and maximum symptom of any disease, cooks used to estimate the maximum and minimum quantity of food or people before any function, the businessmen used to estimate maximum and minimum profit or loss in any transaction. Even today also the women in the house prepare the food according to maximum or minimum consumption by each individual. Sir Issac Newton, a great scientist, invented the concept of functions and hence concept of maxima or minima. Since then his concepts are very usefully applicable in our daily lives. PRESENT TIME CONCEPTS OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA: The terms maxima and minima refer to extreme values of a function, that is, the maximum and minimum values that the function attains. Maximum means upper bound or largest possible quantity. The absolute maximum of a function is the largest number contained in the range of the function. That is, if f(a) is greater than or equal to f(x), for all x in the domain of the function, then f(a) is the absolute maximum. For example, the function f(x) = -162 + 32x + 6 has a maximum value of 22 occurring at x = 1. Every value of x produces a value of the function that is less than or equal to 22, hence, 22 is an absolute maximum. In terms of its graph, the absolute maximum of a function is the value of the function that corresponds to the highest point on the graph. Conversely, minimum means lower bound or least possible quantity. The absolute minimum of a function is the smallest number in its range and corresponds to the value of the function at the lowest point of its graph. If f(a) is less t han or equal to f(x), for all x in the domain of the function, then f(a) is an absolute minimum. As an example, f(x) = 322 32x 6 has an absolute minimum of -22, because every value of x produces a value greater than or equal to -22. In some cases, a function will have no absolute maximum or minimum. For instance the function f(x) = 1/x has no absolute maximum value, nor does f(x) = -1/x have an absolute minimum. In still other cases, functions may have relative (or local) maxima and minima. Relative means relative to local or nearby values of the function. The terms relative maxima and relative minima refer to the largest, or least, value that a function takes on over some small portion or interval of its domain. Thus, if f(b) is greater than or equal to f(b  ± h) for small values of h, then f(b) is a local maximum; if f(b) is less than or equal to f(b  ± h), then f(b) is a relative minimum. Finding the maxima and minima, both absolute and relative, of various functions represents an important class of problems solvable by use of differential calculus. The theory behind finding maximum and minimum values of a function is based on the fact that the derivative of a function is equal to the slope of the tangent. When the values of a function increase as the value of the independent variable increases, the lines that are tangent to the graph of the function have positive slope, and the function is said to be increasing. Conversely, when the values of the function decrease with increasing values of the independent variable, the tangent lines have negative slope, and the function is said to be decreasing. Precisely at the point where the function changes from increasing to decreasing or from decreasing to increasing, the tangent line is horizontal (has slope 0), and the derivative is zero (With reference to figure 1, the function is decreasing to the left of point A, as well a s between points B and C, and increasing between points A and B and to the right of point C). In order to find maximum and minimum points, first find the values of the independent variable for which the derivative of the function is zero, then substitute them in the original function to obtain the corresponding maximum or minimum values of the function. Second, inspect the behavior of the derivative to the left and right of each point. A wide variety of problems can be solved by finding maximum or minimum values of functions. For example, suppose it is desired to maximize the area of a rectangle inscribed in a semicircle. The area of the rectangle is given by A = 2xy. The semicircle is given by x2 + y2 = r2, for y à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥ 0, where r is the radius. To simplify the mathematics, note that A and A2 are both maximum for the same values of x and y, which occurs when the corner of the rectangle intersects the semicircle, that is, when y2 = r2 x2. Thus, we must find a maximum value of the function A2 = 42(r2 -x2) = 4r2x2 44. The required condition is that the derivative be equal to zero, that is, d(A2)/dx = 8r2x 163 = 0. This occurs when x = 0 or when x = 1à ¢Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬Å¾2(r à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡ +2 ). Clearly the area is a maximum when x = 1à ¢Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬Å¾2(r à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡ +2 ). Substitution of this value into the equation of the semicircle gives y = 1à ¢Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬Å¾2(r à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡ +2 ), that is, y = x. Thus, the max imum area of a rectangle inscribed in a semicircle is A = 2xy = r2. The problem of determining the maximum or minimum of function is encountered in geometry, mechanics, physics, and other fields, and was one of the motivating factors in the development of the calculus in the seventeenth century. Let us recall the procedure for the case of a function of one variable y=f(x). First, we determine points where f'(x)=0. These points are called critical points. At critical points the tangent line is horizontal. This is shown in the figure below. . The second derivative test is employed to determine if a critical point is a relative maximum or a relative minimum. If f()>0, then x is a relative minimum. If f() The notions of critical points and the second derivative test carry over to functions of two variables. Let z=f(x, y). Critical points are points in the xy-plane where the tangent plane is horizontal. Since the normal vector of the tangent plane at (x,y) is given by The tangent plane is horizontal if its normal vector points in the z direction. Hence, critical points are solutions of the equations: because horizontal planes have normal vector parallel to z-axis. The two equations above must be solved simultaneously. The Second Derivative Test for Functions of Two Variables How can we determine if the critical points found above are relative maxima or minima? We apply a second derivative test for functions of two variables. Let (x,y) be a critical point and define We have the following cases: If D>0 and (,).) If D>0 and (,).)>0, then f(x,y) has a relative minimum at ( ,).). If D If D=0, the second derivative test is inconclusive. Maxima and Minima in a Bounded Region Suppose that our goal is to find the global maximum and minimum of our model function above in the square -2 Relative extrema in the interior of the square. Relative extrema on the boundary of the square. Corner Points. We have already done step 1. There are extrema at (1, 0) and (-1, 0). The boundary of square consists of 4 parts. Side 1 is y=-2 and -2 The original function of 2 variables is now a function of x only. We set g'(x)=0 to determine relative extrema on Side 1. It can be shown that x=1 and x=-1 are the relative extrema. Since y=-2, the relative extrema on Side 1 are at (1,-2) and (-1,-2). On Side 2 (x=-2 and -2 We set h'(y)=0 to determine the relative extrema. It can be shown that y=0 is the only critical point, corresponding to (-2,0). We play the same game to determine the relative extrema on the other 2 sides. It can be shown that they are (2,0), (1,2), and (-1,2). Finally, we must include the 4 corners (-2,-2), (-2,2), (2,-2), and (2,2). In summary, the candidates for global maximum and minimum are (-1,0), (1,0), (1,-2), (-1,-2), (-2,0), (2,0), (1,2), (-1,2), (-2,-2), (-2,2), (2,-2), and (2,2). We evaluate f(x,y) at each of these points to determine the global max and min in the square. The global maximum occurs (-2,0) and (1,0). This can be seen in the figure above. The global minimum occurs at 4 points: (-1,2), (-1,-2), (2,2), and (2,-2). One of the great powers of calculus is in the determination of the maximum or minimum value of a function. Take f(x) to be a function of x. Then the value of x for which the derivative of f(x) with respect to x is equal to zero corresponds to a maximum, a minimum or an inflexion point of the function f(x). The derivative of a function can be geometrically interpreted as the slope of the curve of the mathematical function y(t) plotted as a function of t. The derivative is positive when a function is increasing toward a maximum, zero (horizontal) at the maximum, and negative just after the maximum. The second derivative is the rate of change of the derivative, and it is negative for the process described above since the first derivative (slope) is always getting smaller. The second derivative is always negative for a hump in the function, corresponding to a maximum. A critical point (x,y) of f is a point where both the partial derivatives of the functions vanish. A local maximum, or a local minimum, is a critical point. In one variable, local maxima and minima are the only `nondegenerate critical points. In two or more variables, other possibilities appear. For instance one has the saddle point, like the critical point of at (0; 0). In some directions this looks like a maximum, in other directions this looks like a minimum. We try to classify critical points by looking at the second derivatives. APPLICATIONS OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA IN DAILY LIFE: There are numerous practical applications in which it is desired to find the maximum or minimum value of a particular quantity. Such applications exist in economics, business, and engineering. Many can be solved using the methods of differential calculus described above. For example, in any manufacturing business it is usually possible to express profit as a function of the number of units sold. Finding a maximum for this function represents a straightforward way of maximizing profits. In other cases, the shape of a container may be determined by minimizing the amount of material required to manufacture it. The design of piping systems is often based on minimizing pressure drop which in turn minimizes required pump sizes and reduces cost. The shapes of steel beams are based on maximizing strength. Finding maxima or minima also has important applications in linear algebra and game theory. For example, linear programming consists of maximizing (or minimizing) a particular quantity while requiring that certain constraints be imposed on other quantities. The quantity to be maximized (or minimized), as well as each of the constraints, is represented by an equation or inequality. The resulting system of equations or inequalities, usually linear, often contains hundreds or thousands of variables. The idea is to find the maximum value of a particular variable that represents a solution to the whole system. A practical example might be minimizing the cost of producing an automobile given certain known constraints on the cost of each part, and the time spent by each laborer, all of which may be interdependent. Regardless of the application, though, the key step in any maxima or minima problem is expressing the problem in mathematical terms. Everything in this world is based on the concept of maxima and minima, every time we always calculate the maximum and minimum of every data. Now-a-days results are also based on the concepts of grades which is again based on the concept of maxima and minima.